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Clinical Considerations Other gases (eg, nitrous oxide) also absorb infrared light, leading to a pressure-broadening effect. Ketamine can be combined with other agents (eg, propofol or midazolam) in small bolus doses or infusions for deep conscious sedation during nerve blocks, endoscopy, etc. Band keratopathy may develop in chronically inflamed and/or traumatized eyes, following therapy (eg, intravitreal silicone oil), and, less commonly, in association with systemic hypercalcemic states. Damage to central nervous system (chorioretinitis, diffuse cerebral calcification, hydrocephalus), blindness, intellectual disability. Evoked potentials have poststimulus latencies that are described as short, intermediate, and long. Note that intratracheal lidocaine itself can initiate bronchospasm if an inadequate dose of induction agent has been used. In contrast, oliguria in patients with a history of congestive heart failure may require inotropes, Side Effects Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors generally produce only a mild hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis because of an apparently limited effect on the distal nephron. Monitoring: In addition to standard monitors, an arterial line is helpful, but it should be placed after induction in young patients. Disease duration of more than 6 years, concomitant pulmonary disease, a peak inspiratory pressure of less than -25 cm H2O (ie, -20 cm H2O), a vital capacity less than 4 mL/kg, and a pyridostigmine dose greater than 750 mg/d are predictive of the need for postoperative ventilation following thymectomy. On the thin side, where gas exchange occurs, the alveolar epithelium and capillary endothelium are separated only by their respective cellular and basement membranes; on the thick side, where fluid and solute exchange occurs, the pulmonary interstitial space separates alveolar epithelium from capillary endothelium. Endotracheal intubation generally ensures adequate ventilation and protects the airway. Dibucaine, a local anesthetic, inhibits normal pseudocholinesterase activity by 80%, but inhibits atypical enzyme activity by only 20%. Intracranial Pressure Succinylcholine may lead to an activation of the electroencephalogram and slight increases in cerebral blood flow and intracranial pressure in some patients. A small Vdss implies that the drug has high aqueous solubility and will remain largely within the intravascular space. If left unchecked, this cycle continues until the patient dies of progressive neurological damage or catastrophic herniation. Etomidate preserves sympathetic tone, which makes it a modestly safer choice than propofol. The filter is also designed to trap air, which can be bled out through a built-in stopcock. In the conjunctiva, the most common variety of hamartoma is a capillary hemangioma, although this hamartoma most often involves the eyelid (see Chapter 13). Manifestations, when they occur, can include chest pains, arrhythmias, embolic events, florid mitral regurgitation, infective endocarditis, and, rarely, sudden death. Fixatives for Tissue Preservation the most commonly used fixative is 10% neutral-buffered formalin. For example, a 60-year-old patient scheduled for elective total hip arthroplasty who also has unstable angina from left main coronary artery disease would more likely survive if coronary artery bypass grafting is performed before the elective procedure. Because these pumps are nonocclusive, they are less traumatic to blood than roller pumps. The sedative and analgesic effects are mediated by 2adrenergic receptors in the brain (locus ceruleus) and spinal cord. Thus, any prolongation of action of a nondepolarizing muscle relaxant from renal or hepatic insufficiency will probably be accompanied by a corresponding increase in the duration of action of a cholinesterase inhibitor. Trauma patients with unstable necks or whose neck has not yet been "cleared" are also candidates for bronchoscopy for tracheal intubation. Regardless of the technique employed, ventilation and oxygenation must be monitored, and equipment to provide positive-pressure ventilation must be immediately available. The higher the fresh gas flow rate, the smaller the breathing system volume, and the lower the circuit absorption, the closer the inspired gas concentration will be to the fresh gas concentration. A rigid and tender or distended abdomen is very suggestive of perforation and should prompt immediate surgical evaluation.

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Another source of concern related to the use of cement is the potential for gradual loosening of the prosthesis over time. Pronounced or sustained reflex bradycardia or heart block caused by manipulation of the carotid baroreceptor can be treated with atropine. Signs of tamponade include diastolic compression or collapse of the right atrium and right ventricle, leftward displacement of the ventricular septum, and an exaggerated increase in right ventricular size with a reciprocal decrease in left ventricular size during inspiration. Cross-matched blood should be readily available, and a second large-bore intravenous line secured. Neurodegenerative disorder, with microcephaly, congenital cataracts, distinctive facial appearance (prominent nose, large ears, overhanging upper lip, micrognathia), wide intermamillary distance, arthrogryposis, severe intellectual disability. Succinylcholine is still useful for rapid sequence induction and for short periods of intense paralysis because none of the presently available nondepolarizing muscle relaxants can match its very rapid onset and short duration. Patients with constrictive pericarditis display jugular venous distention, hepatomegaly, and often ascites. Anatomically, a nephron consists of a tortuous tubule with at least six specialized segments. Nitrous oxide may be used with inhalation inductions; its concentration should be limited to 50% in patients with cyanotic lesions. Macular cherry red spot, blindness, hyperacusia, hepatosplenomegaly, frequent pneumonia, neurodegeneration, hypotonia, weakness, spasticity, seizures. B: When transesophageal examination is used to measure transmitral diastolic inflow, the E and A waves of early and late filling are below the baseline because flow is moving away from the Doppler probe in the esophagus. Hypoalbuminemia is usually not present except in protracted cases, with severe malnutrition, or when chronic liver disease is present. Patients with an increasing "vascular age" routinely present for anesthesia and surgery. The glottic opening lies between the large cuff positioned at the base of the tongue and the smaller balloon positioned in the proximal esophagus. Anesthetic Considerations Symptomatic cardiac tamponade requires evacuation of the pericardial fluid, either surgically or by pericardiocentesis. Marked increases in serum potassium concentrations (secondary to cardioplegia) are usually treated with a furosemide-induced diuresis. At the end of surgery, the oropharyngeal pack must be removed and the pharynx suctioned. As with all lengthy operative procedures, the risk of hypothermia should be minimized by utilizing a forced-air warming blanket and intravenous fluid warming. Cardiac muscle can be divided into atrial, ventricular, and specialized pacemaker and conducting cells. Intravenous fluid loading (crystalloid boluses) is often used to prevent or reduce the severity of hypotension following an epidural injection. Short stature, short limbs, enlarged and stiff joints, finger contractures, skeletal anomalies (kyphoscoliosis, platyspondyly, bell-shaped chest, long bone dysplasia), talipes equinovarus, distinctive facial appearance (round face, midface hypoplasia, hypertelorism, prominent eyes, cleft palate), myopia. Acrocephaly, craniosynostosis, distinctive facial appearance, brachydactyly, polydactyly syndactyly, heart defects, umbilical hernia, growth retardation, hypogenitalism, obesity, intellectual disability. Thus, anesthesia providers should periodically review recommendations regarding -blocker therapy, as guidelines evolve as new evidence becomes available and older evidence is refuted. Classically, patients with advanced aortic stenosis have the triad of dyspnea on exertion, angina, and orthostatic or exertional syncope. Volatile anesthetics increase antegrade refractoriness in both normal and accessory pathways and increase the coupling interval (a measure of the ability of an extrasystole to induce tachycardia). Therefore, adequacy of pseudocholinesterase can be determined in the laboratory quantitatively in units per liter (a minor factor) and qualitatively by dibucaine number (the major factor). Lipoatrophy, hypotrichosis, oligodontia, amastia/hypomastia, lipoatrophy, diabetes mellitus.

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Although difficult to achieve, an ideal strategy would be to administer enough sedation painlessly to allow the placement of an intravenous line, yet maintain a level of consciousness adequate to protect airway reflexes. Such factors include changes in intrathoracic pressure (positive-pressure ventilation or thoracotomy), posture (positioning during surgery), and pericardial pressure (pericardial disease). Respiratory Ventilation is affected less with etomidate than with barbiturates or benzodiazepines. Hepatic biotransformations are often categorized as one of two types of reactions. Alternative devices (eg, videolaryngoscopes, fiberoptic bronchoscopes) should be immediately available. As the use of blood and blood products has evolved, the 1:1:1 transfusion ratio has been uniformly adopted to address the frequent incidence of trauma-induced coagulopathy. Complications reported to be associated with such positioning include upper airway edema and postextubation respiratory distress, postoperative visual loss involving ischemic optic neuropathy or retinal detachment, and brachial plexus injury. Absent perineal and anal openings, ambiguous genitalia, variable additional genitourinary, colonic, lumbosacral vertebral anomalies. In the high pressure systemic circulation, oxygenated arterial blood is pumped to metabolizing tissues, and the by-products of metabolism are taken up for elimination by the lungs, kidneys, or liver. Metabolic flow requirements generally decline with decreasing core body temperature. Valvuloplasty or valve repair are performed whenever possible to avoid the problems associated with valve replacement (eg, thromboembolism, hemorrhage, and prosthetic failure). Dosage & Packaging the premedication dose of scopolamine is the same as that of atropine, and it is usually given intramuscularly. Nitrous oxide also produces concentrationdependent decreases in contractility by reducing the availability of intracellular Ca2+ during contraction. This may occur during laparoscopy if cardiac output drops because of high inflation pressures, the reverse Trendelenburg position, or gas embolism. Disseminated viremia resulting in prenatal and postnatal growth restriction, microcephaly, periventricular calcification, optic atrophy, chorioretinitis, seizures, deafness, intellectual disability. Nephrons are classified as cortical or juxtamedullary (see below), and the renal corpuscles of all nephrons are located in the renal cortex. For example, patients with long bone fractures are predisposed to fat embolism syndrome. Laboratory evaluation typically includes a complete blood count (with platelet count), coagulation studies, electrolytes, blood urea nitrogen, and serum creatinine. So-called "rib notching" may be present on the chest radiograph as a result of dilated collateral intercostal arteries. Some patients may be unable to lie perfectly still for the duration of the surgery. Uterine blood flow is not usually significantly affected by respiratory gas tensions, but extreme hypocapnia (Paco2 <20 mm Hg) can reduce uterine blood flow and causes fetal hypoxemia and acidosis. Immediately afterward, his respirations seem labored with a loud inspiratory stridor.

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Cyproheptadine, which also has significant serotonin antagonist activity, has been used in the Drug Interactions the sedative effects of H1-receptor antagonists can potentiate other central nervous system depressants such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and opioids. A blue nevus is a dark blue-gray to blue-black nevus in which the melanocytes are located in the deep stroma and have spindly morphology, similar to that of nevus cells seen in the uveal tract. Perioperative cardiac conduction abnormalities are less likely to occur but still warrant close cardiovascular monitoring. Lung transplantation (as is true for all solid organ transplants) is limited by the availability of suitable organs, not by the availability of recipients. Regional anesthesia with minimal sedation1 Premedication Metoclopramide Histamine H2-receptor antagonists Nonparticulate antacids Evacuation of gastric contents Nasogastric tube1 Rapid-sequence induction Cricoid pressure Rapid induction with rapid onset of paralysis Avoidance of positive-pressure ventilation via mask Intubation as soon as possible Extubation awake 1 intragastric volume. In addition to bone marrow suppression, specific organ toxicity may be encountered such as renal impairment following cisplatin, pulmonary fibrosis following bleomycin, and neuropathy following vincristine. True albinism has been subdivided into oculocutaneous albinism and ocular albinism. Some clinicians avoid sevoflurane (with <2 L/min gas flows) for patients with kidney disease who undergo lengthy procedures (see Chapters 8 and 29). Unfortunately, lasers introduce several major hazards into the operating room environment. Intraoperative Management Vena cava filters are usually placed percutaneously under local anesthesia with sedation. Furthermore, advocates of succinylcholine usually point to the lack of case reports documenting further eye injury when succinylcholine has been used and to publications documenting safe use of succinylcholine with open eye injuries. Hypertensive patients may display an exaggerated response to both endogenous catecholamines (from intubation or surgical stimulation) and exogenously administered sympathetic agonists. In the preductal (infantile) type, the narrowing occurs proximal to the opening of the ductus. A, the normal macula is identified histologically by a multicellular, thick ganglion cell layer and an area of focal thinning, the foveola. Topical cooling of the affected kidney during the anastomosis may also be employed. Fractures with minimal trauma; some types may include findings such as additional skeletal anomalies (including rhizomelic limb shortening), distinctive facial appearance, dentinogenesis imperfecta, blue sclerae, adult-onset hearing loss. Because of the potential for glucose-containing intravenous solutions to lower plasma potassium concentration, they should not be used in patients with hypokalemic paralysis, whereas they may benefit patients with hyperkale10 mic paralysis. Bronchospasm is another reflex response to intubation and is most common in asthmatic patients. Anesthetic management varies with the age and gender of the patient and the purpose of the procedure. Cardiopulmonary Bypass the circuit and technique used are similar to those used for adults. Doxapram should probably not be used in patients awakening from halothane anesthesia, as halothane sensitizes the myocardium to catecholamines. Thus, when tissue demand exceeds blood flow, the release of tissue metabolites causes vasodilation and increases flow. Many patients maintained on oral antidiabetic agents will require insulin treatment during the intraoperative and postoperative periods. Invasive arterial pressure monitoring and suitable venous access to infuse vasoactive medications are necessary during carotid surgery. Unfortunately, even minor bleeding in the subarachnoid space seems to predispose to delayed complications. Rocuronium primarily undergoes hepatic elimination, but prolongation in patients with severe kidney disease has been reported. Heart rate usually increases after intravenous-but not intramuscular-administration. Reactions to acrylate, a metabolite of atracurium and a structural component of some dialysis membranes, have also been reported in patients undergoing hemodialysis. These inclusions contain surfactant, an important substance necessary for normal pulmonary mechanics (see below). Clinically, the lesion appears as a transparent, cystic elevation on the ocular surface. Neonatal-onset encephalopathy, peripheral neuropathy, cerebellar hypoplasia, retinitis pigmentosa, anomalous distribution of subcutaneous fat, nipple retraction, hypogonadism, hepatic insufficiency, cardiomyopathy, intellectual disability.

Diseases

• Cartwright Nelson Fryns syndrome
• Noonan syndrome
• Girate atrophy of choroid and retina
• Macrocephaly pigmentation large hands feet
• Anophthalmos
• Cataract aberrant oral frenula growth retardation
• Duplication of urethra

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Positioning involves elevation of the surgical site so that the blood pressure at the wound is selectively reduced. Breach of Duty: If these obligations are not fulfilled, the physician has breached his duties to the patient. If multiple surgeries are planned, pheochromocytoma resection will usually be scheduled first. Therefore, the volume of blood that flows through one point (eg, the left ventricular outflow tract) must be the same volume that passes through the aortic valve. Valenza F, Chevallard G, Fossali T, et al: Management of mechanical ventilation during laparoscopic surgery. Patients with poorly controlled hypertension are particularly prone to wide swings in blood pressure during anesthesia induction. Alcoholic ketoacidosis can follow heavy alcohol consumption (binge drinking) in a nondiabetic patient and may include a normal or slightly elevated blood glucose level. This injury accounts for less than 10% of neurosurgical emergencies and has a much better prognosis than acute subdural hematoma. The biotransformation of alfentanil may be impaired following treatment with erythromycin, leading to prolonged sedation and respiratory depression. Hemostasis As with any form of microsurgery, even small amounts of blood can obscure the operating field. Pillows are placed between the arms and legs, and an axillary (chest) roll may be positioned just beneath the dependent axilla to reduce pressure on the inferior shoulder (it is assumed that this helps to protect the brachial plexus); care is taken to avoid pressure on the eyes and the dependent ear. Postoperative the most serious threat to a hyperthyroid patient undergoing surgery is thyroid storm, which is characterized by hyperpyrexia, tachycardia, altered consciousness (eg, agitation, delirium, coma), and hypotension. Although not usually clinically important, bilateral lower extremity exsanguination can cause an increase in central venous pressure and arterial blood pressure that may not be well tolerated in patients with noncompliant ventricles and diastolic dysfunction. Nitroprusside remains the most rapid and effective agent for the intraoperative treatment of moderate to severe hypertension. Evidence of cirrhosis is either present initially or eventually develops in 20% to 50% of patients. Lumbar Epidural Analgesia Epidural analgesia for labor may be administered in early labor after the patient has been evaluated by 7 her obstetrician. The mild muscle-relaxing property of these drugs is mediated at the spinal cord level, not at the neuromuscular junction. The leg supports should be padded wherever there is leg or foot contact, and straps must not impede circulation. No anesthetic agent has consistently been shown to be protective against global ischemia. The lower the temperature, the longer the time required for cooling and rewarming. Although blood-borne diseases such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C are usually thought of as the highest transfusion-related risks, the incidence of such infections has decreased 10,000-fold due to better screening tests of donors and donated units 6 (see Chapter 51). Abnormalities in the number of cusps (most commonly a bicuspid valve) or their architecture produce turbulence that traumatizes the valve and eventually leads to stenosis. In addition, they may fail to respond to hypoxia with increased minute ventilation. Because oxygen molecules do not absorb infrared light, their concentration cannot be measured with monitors that rely on infrared technology and, hence, it must be measured by other means (see below). Localization of the areas of ischemia is invaluable in deciding which electrocardiographic leads to monitor intraoperatively. A, An enucleated eye in which a projectile caused a perforating limbal injury that extends to the posterior choroid.

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A marked increase in diuresis may occur when a loop diuretic is combined with a thiazide diuretic, especially metolazone. The development of fiberoptic sensors that can be inserted through a 20-gauge arterial catheter enables continuous blood gas monitoring. By increasing end-diastolic volume, the volume-overloaded left ventricle can maintain a normal cardiac output despite blood being ejected retrograde into the atrium. The potential hazards of histamine release can be minimized in susceptible patients by infusing opioids slowly or by pretreatment with H1 and H2 antagonists, or both. Molecular Pathology Molecular biology techniques are used increasingly in diagnostic ophthalmic pathology and extensively in experimental pathology (Table 4-2). A, Gross photograph showing a globe with irregular contour, cataractous lens with calcification (asterisk), cyclitic membrane with adherent retina (arrowheads), and bone formation (between green arrows). Prolonged inflation (>2 h) routinely leads to transient muscle dysfunction from ischemia and may produce rhabdomyolysis or permanent peripheral nerve damage. This may be due to differences in blood flow, distance from the central circulation, or different fiber types. Optimal blockade results in a resting heart rate between 50 and 60 beats/min and prevents appreciable increases with exercise (<20 beats/min increase during exercise). In the case of lidocaine, electrophysiological effects at low blood concentrations can be therapeutic. If this fails to produce a sufficient response within 5 min, the loading dose may be repeated and the infusion increased by increments of 50 mcg/kg/min every 5 min to a maximum of 200 mcg/kg/min. Hyperuricemia may result from increased urate reabsorption and from competitive inhibition of urate secretion in the proximal tubule. Bilateral Arthroplasty Bilateral hip arthroplasty can be safely performed in fit patients as a combined procedure, assuming the absence of significant pulmonary embolization after insertion of the first femoral component. Coronary spasm is most often observed in patients who have angina with varying levels of activity or emotional stress (variable-threshold); it is least common with classic exertional (fixed-threshold) angina. Patients with cirrhosis are at increased risk of deterioration of liver function because of their limited functional reserves. Spinal Anesthesia Spinal anesthesia given just prior to delivery-also known as saddle block-provides profound anesthesia for operative vaginal delivery. In fact, C-collar placement in the presence of a cervical spine penetrating injury may hinder observation of soft tissue swelling, tracheal deviation, or other anatomic indications of imminent airway compromise. Prominent a waves and a decreased y descent are typically present on the pulmonary capillary wedge pressure waveform in patients who are in sinus rhythm. When a stenotic segment reaches 70% occlusion, maximum compensatory dilatation is usually present distally: blood flow is generally adequate at rest, but becomes inadequate with increased metabolic demand. Healing in Specific Ocular Tissues Wound healing has variable mechanisms and consequences in different ocular tissues. Intraoperative detection of ischemia depends on recognition of electrocardiographic changes, hemodynamic manifestations, or regional wall motion abnormalities on transesophageal echocardiography. Neurophysiologic monitoring may be employed during aneurysm surgery to identify potential ischemia during temporary clip application. The ophthalmic surgeon is responsible for appropriately obtaining and submitting tissue for evaluation and consulting with the ophthalmic pathologist. H2 blockers reduce both gastric volume and pH but have no effect on the gastric contents already present. The physician may be liable for a complication-even if it is not due to the negligent performance of a procedure-if a jury is convinced that a reasonable person would have refused treatment if properly informed of the possibility of the complication. Curly dry hair, enamel hypoplasia, taurodontism, splitting of nails, mild increase in bone density of calvaria and long bones. The meridian, or clock-hour, of the section is determined by the unique features of the case, such as the presence of an intraocular tumor or a history of previous surgery or trauma. Pneumonectomy is necessary for curative treatment of lesions involving the left or right main bronchus or when the tumor extends toward the hilum.

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Involvement of the posterior structures may be more extensive, with detachment of the peripapillary retina resulting from traction from preretinal membranes. Short stature, microcephaly, alopecia, distinctive facial appearance (upslanting palpebral fissures, protruding ears), bullous macules or papules on sun-exposed skin, residual hyperpigmented or hypopigmented areas, short tapered fingers, small or undescended testes, cardiac defects, intellectual disability. In the multiple-injury patient, providers should maintain a high level of suspicion for pulmonary injury that could evolve into a tension pneumothorax when mechanical ventilation is initiated. In contrast to acute tamponade, constrictive pericarditis prevents respiratory fluctuations in pericardial pressure; because venous return to the heart does not increase during inspiration, a pulsus paradoxus is uncommon. The extent of these side effects is proportional to the amount of opioid being reversed and the speed of the reversal. When fibrovascular tissue forms, it usually does so on the anterior surface of the iris as a neovascular membrane that may cover iridectomy or pupillary openings. Anesthetic successes and failures are often directly related to the skill of the practitioner in manipulating cardiovascular physiology. Prolonged dosing of opioids can produce "opioid-induced hyperalgesia," in which patients become more sensitive to painful stimuli. Phenoxybenzamine can be administered orally and is longer acting than phentolamine, another 1-antagonist. Craniofacial anomalies (cranial lobations, atypical facial clefts), skeletal anomalies (constriction rings, amputations, syndactyly), see also limb-body wall complex. Bronchial blockers may be good choices for lung separation in intubated critically ill patients who require one-lung ventilation, patients who are difficult to intubate using direct laryngoscopy, patients with prior tracheostomies, and patients who may require postoperative mechanical ventilation. Substitutions at various positions on these rings affect potency and biotransformation. These metabolic alterations can cause an increase in minute ventilation in the spontaneously breathing patient and, rarely, arrhythmias. Many of these patients have concomitant diseases such as coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or diabetes. In contrast to roller pumps, blood flow with centrifugal pumps is pressure sensitive and must be monitored by an electromagnetic flowmeter. If epidural opioids are used postoperatively, intravenous opioids should be limited during surgery to prevent excessive postoperative respiratory depression. Chronic Bronchitis the clinical diagnosis of chronic bronchitis is defined by the presence of a productive cough on most days of 3 consecutive months for at least 2 consecutive years. Vasogenic edema-particularly that associated with tumors-often responds to corticosteroids (dexamethasone). Platinum or stainless steel needle electrodes traumatize the scalp and have high impedance (resistance); however, they can be sterilized and placed in a surgical field. Light micrograph shows a nodular prominence at the termination of Descemet membrane (arrow). Concurrent administration might conceivably increase the time that both drugs remain unmetabolized in the bloodstream. Reductions in lung volumes are accentuated by the supine and Trendelenburg positions. Proteinuria detected by routine urinalysis should be evaluated by means of 24-h urine collection. Patients anesthetized with sufentanil (and other shorter acting agents) generally regain consciousness and can be extubated sooner than those anesthetized with fentanyl. If the patient is extubated in the operating room, supplemental oxygen should be provided during transportation to the postanesthesia care unit.

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Hydrocephalus or anencephaly, polydactyly (postaxial of upper limbs, preaxial or postaxial of lower limbs), polyhydramnios, and preterm delivery. Because the cricoid cartilage forms an uninterrupted and incompressible ring, pressure over it is transmitted to underlying tissue. Gravity-dependent transudation of fluid into the intraoperative dependent lung may also be contributory. She gives a history of two episodes of lightheadedness several days prior to her fall today. B, Note the cyst (C) and trophozoite diseases, especially rheumatoid arthritis and graft-vs(T) forms. Although midazolam has been used as an induction agent, neither midazolam nor any other of the benzodiazepines can match the rapid onset and short duration of action of propofol or even thiopental. Fluidadministration sets should be changed frequently, per your medical center protocol. Wasnick J, Hillel Z, Kramer D, et al: Cardiac Anesthesia & Transesophageal Echocardiography, McGraw-Hill, 2011. Microphthalmos Microphthalmos refers to small eyes with associated developmental defects. In addition to maternal respiratory depression, opioids can also induce maternal nausea and vomiting and delay gastric emptying. The latter may be signaled by sudden hypotension, bronchospasm, or an abrupt rise in peak inflation pressure and requires immediate placement of a chest tube. In the first few minutes following initial bolus administration of a drug, the concentration drops very rapidly as the drug quickly diffuses into peripheral compartments. Some clinicians use norepinephrine in combination with phosphodiesterase inhibitors to prevent excessive reductions in systemic arterial pressure. Although the Trendelenburg position increases preload, mean arterial pressure and cardiac output usually either remain unchanged or decrease. Hypofibrinogenemia (fibrinogen level <100 mg/dL or a prolonged thrombin time without residual heparin) should be treated with cryoprecipitate. The most commonly used double-lumen tube are available in several sizes: 35, 37, 39, and 41F. A number of other filters, alarms, and inline pressure, oxygen-saturation, and temperature monitors are also typically used. A large pressure differential between the two hemithoraces is thought to trigger this catastrophic event. Although etomidate may prove valuable in some patients with cardiac disease, it is associated with an incidence of myoclonus ranging from 10% to 60%. Other frequent indications for frozen sections are to determine whether the surgeon has obtained, through biopsy, enough representative material for diagnosis (especially of metastasis) and to submit fresh tissue for flow cytometry and molecular genetics (eg, cancers). Avoid pharyngeal suction, cuff deflation, or laryngeal mask removal until the patient is awake (eg, opening mouth on command). This decrease is principally due to a reduction in expiratory reserve volume as a result of larger than normal tidal volumes. Early extubation is appropriate in selected patients if they are comfortable, cooperative, and not excessively coagulopathic. Mild inflammatory reactions may present merely as asymptomatic elevations in the serum transaminases, whereas massive hepatic necrosis presents as acute fulminant hepatic failure. Plasmapheresis is reserved for patients with dysphagia or respiratory failure, or to normalize muscle strength preoperatively in patients undergoing a surgical procedure, including thymectomy. The bedside monitor shows a sinus tachycardia of 140 beats/min and an oxygen saturation of 92%.